As Canadian society reals back and forth, in reaction to the unmarked graves at Canada’s residential schools, I feel it necessary to make some clarifications. Most residential school survivors and the generations that came before them, and after them, have experienced what is called Intergenerational Trauma. Some people may think that the residential school system was the main form of colonialism in Canada; the main atrocity that was forced upon Indigenous Peoples in Canada. Although it was a major part of the colonial assimilation policy of Canada, there are many other reasons why so many Indigenous People have experienced intergenerational trauma.
There are many timelines that show key events of how Indigenous People in Canada were affected in negative ways. I’ve taken historical information from one source and made a condensed timeline of ten major historical events that helped form intergenerational trauma in the lives of Indigenous Peoples over the last 500 years. Each of these events were controlled by the government and explains in more detail why Indigenous People have so many issues with Canada and feel like second class citizens.
Stage One, 1493: The papal bull Inter Caetera- the “Doctrine of Discovery”- is decreed a year after Christopher Columbus first voyage to America. Meaning Europeans claimed legal title to the “New world.”
Stage Two, 1670: The Hudson’s Bay Company is established by English Royal Charter, forming a monopoly and increasing the volume of goods in the fur trade.
Stage Three, 1600’s and 1700’s: Tuberculosis, smallpox and measles spread, intentionally or inadvertently, across North America, devasting Indigenous populations.
Stage Four, 1657: The “Gradual Civilization Act,” is passed by the Province of Canada to encourage assimilation of Indigenous peoples to Euro-Canadian values. Indigenous men over 21 and “sufficiently advanced,” in their education can be given 50 acres of land. Few take the offer, in part because it means losing their treaty rights.
Stage Five, 1867: “The British North America Act” creates the Dominion of Canada. Colonial responsibility.
Stage Six, 1876: The “Indian Act” is passed by the Government of Canada on the premise that economic, social and political regulation of First Nations peoples (and lands) would facilitate assimilation.
Stage Seven, 1883: Prime Minister John A. McDonald authorizes the creation of Residential Schools run by Christian churches, to force Indigenous children to assimilate to Euro-Canadian culture and practices. Time of greatest tension, 1922: Dr. P.H. Bryce, Chief Medical Officer for Canada’s Department of the Interior and Indian Affairs publishes The Story of a National Crime. He argues that Indigenous People’s health is being ignored in Residential Schools and Indian Hospitals, in violation of treaty pledges.
Stage Eight, 1939-45: Between 5,000 to 8,000 Indigenous soldiers fight for Canada in the Second World War, serving in all major battles and campaigns. Most do not receive the same support of compensation as others upon returning home.
Stage Nine, 1969-70: A federal “White Paper” on Indian Affairs proposes abolishing the Indian Act, Indian status, and reserves, and transferring responsibility for Indian Affairs to the provinces. In response, Cree Chief Harold Cardinal writes the “Red Paper.” Calling for recognition of Indigenous peoples as “Citizens Plus.”
Stage Ten, 1960’s-80’s: Thousands of Indigenous children were taken from their homes by the federal and provincial government and placed in mostly non-Indigenous homes. 1
Each of these stages that I’ve summarized are clear indicators of the mistreatment of Indigenous Peoples of Canada by Canadian authorities. Unfortunately, this same mindset was transferred to regular citizens. Not all citizens of Canada saw Indigenous People in the same way the government authorities did, but it set us as Indigenous People apart as a problem to be solved. The unfortunate part of the history of Canada is that all these historical events set in motion reactions, emotions, feelings, and mindsets that create victims, and survival instincts. Part of these survival instincts is to repress and suppress all the former listed. Bombay, Matheson, and Anisman in The intergenerational effects of Indian Residential Schools say,
Given the lengthy and traumatic history of stressors experienced by Aboriginal peoples, it might be expected that such intergenerational effects may be particularly notable…some of the behavioural disturbances associated with stressful/traumatic experiences (e.g., depression, anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder, and substance abuse disorder),..Moreover, we suggest that trauma may dispose individuals to further stressors, and increase the response to these stressors. It is further argued that the shared collective experiences of trauma experienced by First Nations peoples, coupled with related collective memories, and persistent sociocultural disadvantages, have acted to increase vulnerability to the transmission and expression of intergenerational trauma effects. 2
The purpose of presenting this historical information is not to create more strife and tension. It’s to create a better understanding of what took place over the last 500 years in Canada, that have created all this intergenerational trauma, amongst my fellow Indigenous Peoples. There are many more historical events that could have been added, but ten is enough to create more awareness. The good news is that there are many Indigenous People who are productive members of their communities and society. Yet, there are many who are struggling to find out why they always feel so bad all the time.
1Historica Canada, Online: http://education.historicacanada.ca/en/too ls/493storicacanada.ca/en/too ls/493. Accessed August 03, 2021.
2International Journal of Indigenous Health, Vol 5 no 3, Intergenerational Taruma: Convergence of Muyltiple Processes among First Nations Peoples in Canada, Online: https://jps.library.utoronto.ca/index. php/ijih/ article /view/28987. Accessed August 03, 2021.
Parry Stelter is a Cree and Métis member of Alexander First Nation which is part of Treaty Six Territory. He’s a Chaplain at the Salvation Army and a doctoral candidate in contextu-al leadership at Providence University.
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